Sanatan Dharma (also known as Hinduism) is an eternal
concept, the reason why it has become the longest living religion of the world.
The religion flourished despite having its share of ups and downs in its
cherished and checkered history. In comparison, most religions of yore got
wiped out in the sands of time due to external aggression or internal anarchism,
while others which survived witnessed steady decline/ division in their
follower-base.
It is an interesting enquiry into
the oldest religion to understand its basis and ability to
adapt to changes from within and challenges from without.
Hinduism flourished over the millenia due to a strong basis in/ focus on Spirituality, evolution
and practice.
Hinduism
is spirituality-based: It is based on the philosophia perennis
that Self is the permanent reality/ bliss (also, its opposite, ignorance (Maya),
is the root cause of apparent reality/ misery). Realization of the Truth, that
Divinity is universal, is a matter of understanding and not mere belief.
Hinduism
is evolution-oriented: It is based on the principle that
change is an inevitable aspect of existence; hence, everything needs to stay
relevant in changing circumstances. Resting content with status-quo in practice
or understanding is not a virtue or purpose of life, but evolving through
concepts and contents of creation sure are. This applies even to God‘s’,
as they are an integral part of creation. God ‘evolution’ is part of religious
evolution.
Hinduism
is practice-driven:
It is based on the premise that for religious evolution, living its principles is
a way of life. Consequently, practices and rituals at different stages of life are
essential elements for progress through the cosmic-maze/ individual-mania.
Worship rituals, the means to pray and propitiate Gods, also had major role to
play in the evolution of religion.
Of
these, many aspects of Spirituality and Practice are not the monopoly of
Hinduism. In fact, they, or their equivalents (gospels/ canons), are the hallmark
of other religions as well. What really made Hinduism to stay on and stand out
was the religion’s ability to evolve, a fact and factor missed by dead
religions.
Religious
Evolution:
Religious evolution essentially
centered on:
·
The Worshipped (Gods)
·
The Worship (Rituals)
·
The Worshippers
(Followers)
All
Gods despite their differing denominations, and all rituals despite their
disparate descriptions, existed in some form or other. What really happened was
fusion of cultures, with followers appreciating/ accommodating/ assimilating
the best parts/ practices of the other. These qualities turned out to be Hinduism’s
saviour during turbulent years of history, when armed missions and articulate
missionaries made repeated attempts to eclipse it.
The
Worshipped (Objects-of-Worship):
For Hindus, God is the central theme of life. But god is not
a hard-headed belief, but a broad-minded understanding. This is confirmed by
the marked difference between the Gods the distant ancestors
worshipped and the current generations worship, and that by itself is a proof
that even with respect to Gods we are receptive/ adaptive to
changes, a phenomenon unthinkable in other religions.
How
did the Objects-of-worship evolve?
Different
periods of history had different sets of Gods:
The primeval objects-of-worship were the Tutelary
Deities/ Vedic Gods.
The
medieval objects-of-worship were the Puranic Gods.
The coeval objects-of-worship are
a medley of Gods and God-men.
The Primeval Gods:
Vedic Gods: They were 33 in number, with no
hierarchy (12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus, Indra and Prajapathi). They were
representative of the forces behind the macrocosmic and microcosmic existence.
As the Gods were defined by Scriptures, it was a closed-end tradition,
i.e. a follower couldn't add or delete a God from the
pantheon. Consequently Vedic worship never evolved, instead went into decline/
oblivion.
Tutelary Deities: They are the Gods native to a
particular region/ clan, their antiquity paralleling or even
preceding the Vedic ones. Known as Village Deities (Gram Devata),
they were worshipped by a community/ native population from time immemorial.
One remarkable aspect of such God-worship was that, despite any amount of
advance/ changes in their trade or traditions, the followers' faith never
wavered or weakened.
These deities were quite
'earthly' with no fixed pattern in their forms, or purpose in their
functions. Anything could be deified by anybody, though some figures
(especially the Shakti/ Siva equivalents) were more prevalent/ predominant than
others.
The
natives had three sets of Gods: Clan/ Community Deity (Kul Devata) (a
female or male deity corresponding to Parvati/ Siva), Guardian Deity
(corresponding to Shiva’s sons, Iyappan/ Karthikeya) and Subordinate deities
(corresponding to Ganas of Shiva).
Female
deity was the equivalent of Goddess Parvathi in Vedic worship. She was
considered the fertility goddess who in Her benevolent form bestowed prosperity
and knowledge, and in Her angry form caused pox and similar ailments. No wonder
Shakta goddesses were revered as well as feared.
Every
community had a guardian deity, which was invariably a male deity (in the
Dravidian hinterland it was called Ayyanar). The Vedic people considered
Him more as a son of Shiva.
The temples
of main female/ male gods were invariably in the middle of the community
settlements, whereas that of the male guardian deity was always at the outskirts
of it.
Since there were no regulations
for defining or identifying Gods, it was an open-end tradition, i.e. a
worshipper/ community could add/ avoid a God from the pantheon at
will. Tutelary gods evolved over the millennia, notwithstanding cultural
and racial prejudices.
The Medieval Gods:
Puranic Gods: They were the central figures
of adulation in the Itihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and Puranas. The Puranic Gods were many in number,
with well-defined hierarchy. Ishwars, especially Vishnu/ Shiva
were regarded as the foremost, in importance and power, followed
by Saraswati/ Laxmi/ Parvati (Devis), and Ganesh/ Surya/ Kartikeya.
Within Celestial class, there were Devas, Gandharvas, Apsaras, Kinnaras, Kimpurushas,
Yakshas, Siddhas, Charanas, Vidyadharas, apart from certain Asuric
Gods like Varuna, Bali et al.
The Coeval Gods:
Gods & God-men: They are an inter-mix,
sometimes an incongruous-mix of above traditions. Apart from the Gods, the
mix included Vedic saints (like Sage Agastya), Itihasa characters (like Hanuman),
self-realized souls ((like Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Ramana Maharishi),
protagonists of Bhakti movement (the 63-Saivaite Nayanmars/ 12 Vaishnavaite
Alvars, Mirabai, Tulsidas) and holy-men (like Sai Baba). Many modern-day
(self-proclaimed) cult-leaders also staked claim for the exalted state, but
only a few made the grade!
The
Worship (Rituals):
Most followers ignore or are ignorant of the lofty truths in
the well-meaning scriptures or well-articulated sermons. It is the rituals
which appeals and attracts the imagination of the individual as he becomes a
participant and not a mere spectator.
Also,
esoteric rituals which needed elaborate arrangements or educated elite to
perform, or that which let a more-advantaged group dominate over a
lesser-privileged one, or which excluded main-stream participation withered.
Rituals
which encouraged flexible/ egalitarian approach, or which were open to changes survived
the odds.
How did the modes-of-worship
evolve?
Shrauta tradition:
It is the tradition based on Shrutis (Vedas). References to very
elaborate rituals, mostly Yagnas (Yaga and Homam) could be found
in the Upasana Kanda of the Vedas. It compulsorily required an
officiating priest, Ritvij. Corresponding to the Vedic hymns recited, they
were called Hota (Rig), Adhvaryu (Yajur), Udgata (Sama)
and Brahma (Atharva). Fire (Agni) was an essential aspect
of rituals, as it was He who was deemed to carry the essence of offerings to
higher regions/ Gods. There was always an expectation preceding every
offering.
Tutelar
tradition: While Shrauta tradition was ritualistic
(demanding more of ‘head’), tutelary God worship was rustic (demanding more of
‘heart’). Hence, despite their customs being derided and denigrated by the
Vedic protagonists, they proved more versatile. Rituals were simple with no
need for sophisticated Tantram or Mantram. Offerings to God were
mostly flowers, plant items or cooked food. Cooked offerings to the
subordinate-gods sometimes included even non-vegetarian fare. That meant that
there was no dichotomy between their daily routine and god worship, or hypocrisy
between their thoughts and practices. Though Shrauta tradition is extinct,
tutelary mode of worship is still extant.
Smarta tradition: This tradition revolved around Pancayatana-puja (five
shrine worship) with focus on Shiva (Saiva tradition), Vishnu (Vaishnava
tradition), Shakti (Sakta tradition), Ganesh (Ganapatya tradition),
Surya (Saura tradition). In some places, Kartikeya (Kaumara tradition)
is also added to the pantheon, in which case it is called Shanmata
tradition.
Shakta tradition was the worship of Shakti, probably the
most ancient form of worship. The goddess was worshipped in a friendly form
(fertility goddess) and a fearful form (Kali). Tantric
cult and Shakta tradition are closely related.
Saiva tradition of Shiva worship transcended even the
Vedic period. He was worshipped in many names (Shankar as the destroyer-deity
and Maheshwar as the Purusha-aspect of Brahman) and forms (mostly in abstract
form like Lingam, and occasionally in tangible form like Nataraja). Shaivism
had different schools – Saiva Siddhanta, Vira Shaivism, Kashmiri Shaivism,
Natha Shaivism, etc.
Vaishnava tradition was the worship of Vishnu, mostly as the
god-of-prosperity (Lord Venkateshwara) amongst a select group of worshippers,
while His incarnations (Avatars), Ram and Krishna were more and immensely popular
across a wide spectrum of followers. Ram and his consort, Sita and his foremost
devotee, Hanuman, and Krishna are the central figures in two of the longest
epics of Hinduism. Radha, Krishna’s playmate of childhood, but considered more
of his soul-mate by his devotees, is not mentioned in the epics or even in
Srimad Bhagavatham. She and her eternal love for Krishna was probably the product
of Bhakti movement, and her love symbolized the ultimate form of
devotion. Poet Jaydeva in 12th century and Acharya
Nimbarka in 13th century immortalized their
devotional-love.
Vaishnavism
had four different traditions (Sampradayas) – Brahma Sampradaya
(Madhavacharya – Vyasakutas & Dasakutas), Sri Sampradaya
(Ramanuja – Vadagalai & Thengalai), Rudra Sampradaya
(Vallabhacharya), Kumaras Sampradaya (Nimbarka).
Ganpatya
tradition worshipped Ganapati as the central deity, and was the favorite of
almost all Hindus, despite their Advaita or Dwaita affliations. He is worshipped before commencing
any endeavor as the harbinger of luck and remover of obstacles in their secular/
spiritual pursuits.
Saura
tradition was the worship of Surya, which had a place of pride in the Vedic
period as well. He seamlessly found a slot in the Smarta
tradition too, as He was the only prominent divinity visible in physical realm.
In fact, the most sacred/ secret/ potent mantra of Hinduism, Gayatri Mantra, is a hymn in eulogy and entreaty of the Surya devata.
Kaumara
tradition was the worship of Skanda (Murugan/ Kartikeya), the
commander-in-chief of Gods. He was more popular in the southern parts.
The Smarta system
of worship probably existed for long, but found rightful space and
importance in/ during/ post Bhakti movement which swept India from the 8th
century, more particularly from the 11th-13th centuries. The
most common mode of worship under the Smarta traditions is Sodasopachara,
the 16-step rituals. The more elaborate pujas needed the services of
an Aagama priest, but the lesser ones were done by a
householder himself. There may or may not be an expectation for doing the puja,
but devotion was always an underlying and unifying thread.
The
Worshippers (the followers):
The followers of the religion are spread over a broad
spectrum of background. Defining
the paradigms which characterize
the followers, and
decoding the paradoxes which confuse the observers can be a daunting
task. While the paradigms confirm followers’ social/ cultural/ spiritual
similarity, the paradoxes convey
their ethnical, geographical and ideological diversity.
The
paradigms which define a follower: A Hindu is defined by not just an explicit
belief in religion, but also an implicit faith in spirituality. It is not just adopting
a time-tested tenet, but also accepting a contrary view-point. It is not just
the freedom to profess chosen path, but also the willingness to embrace changes
en route. It is not just the ability to stay rooted in traditions, but also an earnestness
to evolve to a higher order.
The
paradoxes which confuse an onlooker: Hindus would fight amongst themselves, but
not resort to armed aggression on neighbours. They would advocate supremacy of a
sect’s philosophy over other, but not their religion over others. They would fast for religious
reasons, but feast in the name of
same gods. They would ensure handsome donations to an advantaged
‘creator’ (God/ temple), but not to a disadvantaged ‘created’ (down-trodden).
They wouldn’t offer their hands for wishing a stranger, but relish their meals
with hands. They would be extremely fuzzy about personal hygiene, but would be
equally reckless about public cleanliness.
How
did the Followers evolve?
The
Itihasas and Puranic era (5th century BCE) followed
the Vedic period (15th-5th century BCE), initially
co-existing, later eclipsing it totally. The Vedic worshippers had a very
rigid regimen and they had no freedom to pursue anything to the contrary. The
tutelary deity worship was more laissez-faire, affording freedom to
worshippers.
Due to the stranglehold of the
people from the higher strata, and non-participatory nature of Vedic worship,
there was mass exodus of people, largely from the lower strata of society.
Enter now Mahavira.
Some claim that Jain religion is much older, perhaps starting with Rishabha,
the great-great-grandson of Swyambhavu Manu, and ending with the
24th Tirtankara, Mahavira (around 6th century
BCE). Jainism had patrons among the ruling elite, therefore flourished due to
state support.
Buddhism came into existence
almost at the same time as Mahavira (6th century BCE). Buddha’s
message was simple and universal. It preached and practiced egalitarianism with
no social stratification. Buddhism had mass following. With its focus on
middle-path (Madhyama Marg), it spread far and wide very rapidly, even
to the far-east countries, where it is a major religion now.
The rapid spread of Jainism and Buddhism
during the centuries preceding and following Common Era (5th century
BCE to 5th century CE), caused rapid erosion in the ranks and
ratings of Hinduism. The turmoil was more pronounced in the northern parts due
to diffused and shuffling political landscape. Fortunately south was relatively
free of these headwinds and the tranquil environment spawned a brand of Bhakti
movement.
5th-6th CE
onwards, Saivaite Nayanmars sowed the seeds of Bhakti movement in south
India. But unification of the divergent and distraught Hindus had to wait for few
more centuries, not until Shankaracharya entered the ‘revival-battle’ in the 8th
century. Within 32 years of event-filled life, he managed to bring all the
drifting and disparate sects of Hinduism with a gospel message that every/
everyone's God was an aspect of ultimate truth, and that any/
every mode of worship was acceptable to god, if performed with love
and faith.
Overnite, Smarta tradition
found its bearings. In Smarta system, a follower became a ‘proximate’ participant,
unlike a Yajna, where he was a ‘silent’ spectator! This appealed to
masses and Hinduism retraced its lost glory over the next few centuries. Thus
did Shankaracharya bring the ideologically drifting and
geographically spread-out sects back into the folds of mainstream Hinduism almost
single-handedly.
Though Vedic ideology
dramatically differed from the local traditions, the Vedic
people were in total sync with the native population. There was a
healthy mixing of different strata of the society.
Veda Vyasa, for example, was born
of Parashara muni and a fisher-woman, Satyavati. Vyasa’s guru,
Acharya Gautama was married to Sharmi, a tribal girl from the Godhuli village,
so was Sukha, Vyasa’s son, to Peevaree, a sister of the tribal
chieftain. Such inter-mingling of people even at the highest level, facilitated
the fusion of cultures then and even much later.
Unity
in diversity – where/ how did the traditions concur/ differ?
In Vedic God
worship (Shrauta traditons), Idols (Yantram) were unknown, while Mantram was the major means to address
Gods, with Tantram (rituals) playing
a subsidiary role.
In Tutelary God worship, Idols (Yantram) were essential aspect of
worship, with Tantram (Rituals)
complementing the worship regimen. Mantram
was unknown.
In Puranic God worship (Smarta traditions), Aagama Shastras defined exacting specifications for Yantram (for Idols and Temples).
16-step-rituals, in full/ part (Tantram)
was an essential aspect of worship. Chanting of Mantram, and Bhajans/ Kirtans
in its absence (sometimes in addition), completed the worship protocols.
Gods were more ‘heavenly’ in Shrauta traditions,
whereas the Tutelary Gods were more earthly, that is, the followers could see
God in human forms (some people would get ‘possessed’ by the deities (ritual
shaman dance), called ‘Sami Aadis’ in Tamil, literally dance of gods). Communicating
with the tutelary gods was very easy, as the gods (in the form of ‘possessed’
revelers) would talk the native tongue (an oracle). It was almost impossible in
the Vedic tradition, as the language (Sanskrit) and the intermediaries
(Brahmins) acted as barriers to free communication.
The
Puranic idols were sculpted to exacting specifications, whereas the Tutelary
gods were not as portly, mostly made of mud or in some cases even a simple
stone. Temple worship was foreign to
Vedic culture, which believed in Homas and Yagas to invoke/
propitiate Gods.
Smarta tradition is a fusion of cultures; it borrowed the
Temple culture of natives and the worship rituals of Shrauta culture, which appealed to the entire spectrum of
Hindu devotees.
Vedic
people never had temples, nor idols for worship. They would erect a place
for Yaga-Homa and destroy it after the puja. Consecration and
dismantling the Yajnakund were part of the rituals. In comparison,
tutelary gods always
had a place for worship, either within the core settlement or in the near
periphery or in the yonder wilderness. The natives didn't have elaborate
worship or Samskara rituals. Hence, services of a learned pandit
were not a necessity. It was common for community members to perform
rituals.
In
a fusion of cultures, and over a period of time, the Smarta tradition accepted
the fixed-place (temple) worship-concept of the natives and the worship rituals
of the vedic people. Also, most of the native gods were absorbed into the Hindu
pantheon as aspects of Shiva-Parvathi or their descendents.
Family
deity (Kul Devata) was an essential element in native worship. In Smarta
tradition, Personal deity (Ishta Devata) had a prominent and preeminent
position. Shrauta tradition never presented options.
The
Smarta tradition of God-worship was a mid-way point, where a worshipper had
the freedom to choose a God (like natives) from a galaxy of them (like Puranic
gods). Even the worship could be effected with a simple offer of
flower (like natives) to an elaborate set of Upacharas (like Vedic).
Shiva
worship is a typical example of the fusion of cultures:
Amongst
Vedic lore, there was no concept of Destroyer. They worshipped 11 Rudras (the
ferocious ones, probably representing wind/ storm).
Amongst
Tutelary gods also there was no concept of Destroyer either. There was a female
goddess and her consort was Ayyan (in south India).
Shiva
(meaning the auspicious, representing Destroyer) was a later addition to the Puranic
pantheon.
When
Bhakti movement swept through the Hindu landscape, the Vedic Rudras and the
tutelary ‘Ayyan’ got ‘merged’ with Shiva. True to the saying, ‘all is well that
ends well’, the merger was seamless and successful.
Bhakti
movement was a blessing:
The
latter day Dvaita practitioners literally usurped/ hijacked the
Saivaite-initiated Bhakti-oriented Smarta traditions, but that
only added muscle and momentum to the renaissance rather than undermining the
original premises of Advaita practitioners.
The Bhakti movement,
though it remarkably contributed to the arresting of the spread of Buddhism,
yet, produced its share of problems, with Advaita and Dvaita followers
fighting for supremacy.
Once again, tutelary deities were called in to
subdue frayed tempers. A guardian deity of Dravidian hinterland, Ayyanar, came
handy for resolving the Saiva-Vaishnava dispute. He was considered as the son
of Vishnu (Hari) (Vishnu as Mohini) and Lord Shiva (Hara). Ayyanar became the
famed Hariharaputra, also called Sastha or Aiyappan, who then became a rage in
the sub-continent).
Fortunately, by the time Mughals came
in the 14th-15th century, the reforms and bhakti movement had firmly
taken root. So deep was the foundation and so strong was the edifice that the
fervour or the fatwas of the new rulers failed to make a dent in the structure
and solidarity of Hindus.
Centuries later the British
attempted to shake their basic faith, but without success. However, their
strategy to break the unity on caste lines met with enormous success. (Remember, Hindus loathe to fight external war of aggression, but
love to fight internal sects to the last man).
The solidarity of the religious
milieu became a main plank of launching freedom movement by some leaders
like Tilak, Aurobindo, during British rule. But the caste-division
still continues to haunt the society even now.
Thus,
· Self/ Truth is supreme in Indian
Spirituality. It considers even God as an ‘extension/ symbol’ of this truth.
·
Hinduism flourished because it was open
to evolution even with respect to Gods, something unimaginable/ blasphemous in most
religions. Hinduism was not dogmatic even with respect to their Gods; hence, it
had no qualms in adopting different Gods that accommodated people of different
geographical/ ideological background, or that evolved with their upbringing/ understanding.
· Unlike evolution of individuals which takes place
over a few years, and that of societies over
a few decades, and that of nations over a few centuries,
the god evolution in Hinduism took place over a few thousand
years.
· Surprisingly, from the orthodox Dravidian
heartland, where Vedic religion played second fiddle to tutelary god-worship,
arose the three pioneering religious reformers of Hinduism, Shankaracharya, Sri
Ramanujar and Madhavacharya, and their historic schools of thoughts, Advaita,
Dvaita and Vishistadvaita.
· Surprisingly, it was the upper-caste
leaders who initiated the religious renaissance initially and sustained the Bhakti
movement subsequently.
Surprisingly, it was the principal proponent
of Advaita who seeded the bhakti concept, a distinguishing
mark of Dvaita, as a means to get the drifting masses back in the fold
of Hinduism.
